Translation is the process by which messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded into a sequence of amino acids to form a functional protein. This process occurs in the ribosomes, which can be found in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotes. Translation is the second step in […]
Cell division is an essential process by which cells replicate to ensure growth, development, tissue repair, and reproduction in living organisms. The two primary types of cell division are mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis leads to the formation of two genetically identical daughter cells, while meiosis results in four genetically distinct […]
Transcription is the biological process where the genetic information in DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) for protein synthesis. It is the first step in gene expression and occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. Transcription involves several key enzymes and regulatory mechanisms […]
DNA replication is the biological process by which a cell duplicates its genetic material before cell division, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the parent DNA. This process is semiconservative, meaning each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand. DNA […]
The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a cell leading to its growth, replication, and division into two daughter cells. It is divided into two major phases: interphase and the M phase (mitosis or meiosis). Interphase is further divided into the G1, S, and G2 […]
Post-translational modifications are chemical changes made to proteins after translation, which affect their function, stability, and localization. These modifications include processes such as phosphorylation, glycosylation, acetylation, and ubiquitination. They can activate or deactivate enzymes, alter protein interactions, or target proteins for degradation. Such modifications are crucial for regulating protein activity, […]
Post-transcriptional modifications are processes that modify pre-mRNA into mature mRNA after transcription in eukaryotic cells. These modifications include the addition of a 5′ cap, splicing to remove introns, and the addition of a poly-A tail at the 3′ end. These changes protect mRNA from degradation, aid in its export from […]
Chargaff’s rule is a key principle in molecular biology, stating that in DNA, the proportion of adenine (A) always equals that of thymine (T), and guanine (G) always equals cytosine (C). This A=T and G=C ratio varies between species but remains constant within an organism. This discovery helped Watson and […]
DNA ligase is an essential enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strands by catalyzing the formation of phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides. It plays a critical role in DNA replication and repair by sealing breaks or “nicks” in the sugar-phosphate backbone, particularly on the lagging strand where Okazaki fragments […]